Philosophy of Education Essay Example for Free

Philosophy of Education Essay The word education is used sometimes to signify the activity, process, or enterprise of educating or being educated and sometimes to signify the discipline or field of study taught in schools of education that concerns itself with this activity, process, or enterprise. As an activity or process, education may be formal or informal, private or public, individual or social, but it always consists in cultivating dispositions (abilities, skills, knowledges, beliefs, attitudes, values, and character traits) by certain methods. As a discipline, education studies or reflects on the activity or enterprise by asking questions about its aims, methods, effects, forms, history, costs, value, and relations to society. Definition The philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process of education or the philosophy of the discipline of education. That is, it may be part of the discipline in the sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of educating or being educated; or it may be metadisciplinary in the sense of being concerned with the concepts, aims, and methods of the discipline. However, even in the latter case it may be thought of as part of the discipline, just as metaphilosophy is thought of as a part of philosophy, although the philosophy of science is not regarded as a part of science. Historically, philosophies of education have usually taken the first form, but under the influence of analytical philosophy, they have sometimes taken the second. In the first form, philosophy of education was traditionally developed by philosophers–for example, Aristotle, Augustine, and John Locke–as part of their philosophical systems, in the context of their ethical theories. However, in the twentieth century philosophy of education tended to be developed in schools of education in the context of what is called foundations of education, thus linking it with other parts of the discipline of education–educational history, psychology, and sociology–rather than with other parts of philosophy. It was also developed by writers such as Paul Goodman and Robert M. Hutchins who were neither professional philosophers nor members of schools of education. Types As there are many kinds of philosophy, many philosophies, and many ways of philosophizing, so there are many kinds of educational philosophy and ways of doing it. In a sense there is no such thing as the philosophy of education; there are only philosophies of education that can be classified in many different ways. Philosophy of education as such does not describe, compare, or explain any enterprises to systems of education, past or present; except insofar as it is concerned with the tracing of its own history, it leaves such inquiries to the history and sociology of education. Analytical philosophy of education is meta to the discipline of education–to all the inquiries and thinking about education–in the sense that it does not seek to propound substantive propositions, either factual or normative, about education. It conceives of its task as that of analysis: the definition or elucidation of educational concepts like teaching, indoctrination, ability, and trait, including the concept of education itself; the clarification and criticism of educational slogans like Teach children, not subjects; The exploration of models used in thinking about education (e.g. , growth); and the analysis and evaluation of arguments and methods used in reaching conclusions about education, whether by teachers, administrators, philosophers, scientists, or laymen. To accomplish this task, analytical philosophy uses the tools of logic and linguistics as well as techniques of analysis that vary from philosopher to philosopher. Its results may be valued for their own sake, but they may also be helpful to those who seek more substantive empirical of normative conclusions about education and who try to be careful about how they reach them. This entry is itself an exercise in analytical philosophy of education. Normative philosophies or theories of education may make use of the results of such analytical work and of factual inquiries about human beings and the psychology of learning, but in any case they propound views about what education should be, what dispositions it should cultivate, why it ought to cultivate them, how and in whom it should do so, and what forms it should take. Some such normative theory of education is implied in every instance of educational endeavor, for whatever education is purposely engaged in, it explicitly or implicitly assumed that certain dispositions are desirable and that certain methods are to be used in acquiring or fostering them, and any view on such matters is a normative theory of philosophy of education. But not all such theories may be regarded as properly philosophical. They may, in fact, be of several sorts. Some simply seek to foster the dispositions regarded as desirable by a society using methods laid down by its culture. Here both the ends and the means of education are defined by the cultural tradition. Others also look to the prevailing culture for the dispositions to be fostered but appeal as well to experience, possibly even to science, for the methods to be used. In a more pluralistic society, an educational theory of a sort may arise as a compromise between conflicting views about the aids, if not the methods, of education, especially in the case of public schools. Then, individuals or groups within the society may have conflicting full-fledged philosophies of education, but the public philosophy of education is a working accommodation between them. More comprehensive theories of education rest their views about the aims and methods of education neither on the prevailing culture nor on compromise but on basic factual premises about humans and their world and on basic normative premises about what is good or right for individuals to seek or do. Proponents of such theories may reach their premises either by reason (including science) and philosophy or by faith and divine authority. Both types of theories are called philosophies of education, but only those based on reason and philosophy are properly philosophical in character; the others might better be called theologies of education. Even those that are purely philosophical may vary in complexity and sophistication. In such a full-fledged philosophical normative theory of education, besides analysis of the sorts described, there will normally be propositions of the following kinds: 1.Basic normative premises about what is good or right; 2. Basic factual premises about humanity and the world; 3. Conclusions, based on these two kinds of premises, about the dispositions education should foster; 4. Further factual premises about such things as the psychology of learning and methods of teaching; and 5. Further conclusions about such things as the methods that education should use. For example, Aristotle argued that the Good equals happiness equals excellent activity; that for a individual there are two kinds of excellent activity, one intellectual (e.g. , doing geometry) and one moral (e. g. , doing just actions); that therefore everyone who is capable of these types of excellent activity should acquire a knowledge of geometry and a disposition to be just; that a knowledge of geometry can be acquired by instruction and a disposition to be just by practice, by doing just actions; and that the young should be given instruction in geometry and practice in doing just actions. In general, the more properly philosophical part of such a full normative theory of education will be the proposition it asserts in (1),(2), and (3); for the propositions in (4) and hence (5) it will, given those in (3), most appropriately appeal to experience and science. Different philosophers will hold different views about the propositions they use in (1) and (2) and the ways in which these propositions may be established. Although some normative premises are required in (1) as a basis for any line of reasoning leading to conclusions in (3) or (5) about what education should foster or how it should do this, the premises appearing in (2) may be of various sorts–empirical, scientific, historical, metaphysical, theological, or epistemological. No one kind of premise is always necessary in (2) in every educational context. Different philosophers of education will, in any case, have different views about what sorts of premises it is permissible to appeal to in (2). All must agree, however, that normative premises of the kind indicated in (1) must be appealed to. Thus, what is central and crucial in any normative philosophy of education is not epistemology, metaphysics, or theology, as is sometimes thought, but ethics, value theory, and social philosophy. Role Let us assume, as we have been doing, that philosophy may be analytical, speculative, or narrative and remember that it is normally going on in a society in which there already is an educational system. Then, in the first place, philosophy may turn its attention to education, thus generating philosophy of education proper and becoming part of the discipline of education. Second, general philosophy may be one of the subjects in the curriculum of higher education and philosophy of education may be, and presumably should be, part of the curriculum of teacher education, if teachers are to think clearly and carefully about what they are doing. Third, in a society in which there is a single system of education governed by a single prevailing theory of education, a philosopher may do any of four things with respect to education: he may analyze the concepts and reasoning used in connection with education in order to make peoples thinking about it as clear, explicit, and logical as possible; he may seek to support the prevailing system by providing more philosophical arguments for the dispositions aimed at and the methods used; he may criticize the system and seek to reform it in the light of some more philosophical theory of education he has arrived at; or he may simply teach logic and philosophy to future educators and parents in the hope that they will apply them to educational matters. Fourth, in a pluralistic society like the United States, in which the existing educational enterprise or a large segment of it is based on a working compromise between conflicting views, a philosopher may again do several sorts of things. He may do any of the things just mentioned. In the United States in the first half of the twentieth century professional philosophers tended to do only the last, but at the end of the twentieth century they began to try to do more. Indeed, there will be more occasions for all of these activities in a pluralistic society, for debate about education will always be going on or threatening to be resumed. A philosopher may even take the lead in formulating and improving a compromise theory of education. He might then be a mere eclectic, but he need not be, since he might defend his compromise plan on the basis of a whole social philosophy. In particular, he might propound a whole public philosophy for public school education, making clear which dispositions it can and should seek to promote, how it should promote them, and which ones should be left for the home, the church, and other private means of education to cultivate. In any case, he might advocate appealing to scientific inquiry and experiment whenever possible. A philosopher may also work out a fully developed educational philosophy of his own and start an experimental school in which to put it into practice, as John Dewey did; like Dewey, too, he may even try to persuade his entire society to adopt it.Then he would argue for the desirability of fostering certain dispositions by certain methods, partly on the basis of experience and science and partly on the basis of premises taken from other parts of his philosophy–from his ethics and value theory, from his political and social philosophy, or from his epistemology, metaphysics, or philosophy of mind. It seems plausible to maintain that in a pluralistic society philosophers should do all of these things, some one and some another. In such a society a philosopher may at least seek to help educators concerned about moral, scientific, historical, aesthetic, or religious education by presenting them, respectively, with a philosophy of morality, science, history, art, or religion from which they may draw conclusions about their aims and methods. He may also philosophize about the discipline of education, asking whether it is a discipline, what its subject matter is, and what its methods, including the methods of the philosophy of education, should be. Insofar as the discipline of education is a science (and one question here would be whether it is a science) this would be a job for the philosopher of science in addition to one just mentioned. Logicians, linguistic philosophers, and philosophers of science may also be able to contribute to the technology of education, as it has come to be called, for example, to the theory of testing or of language instruction. Finally, in a society that has been broken down by some kind of revolution or has newly emerged from colonialism, a philosopher may even supply a new full-fledged normative philosophy for its educational system, as Karl Marx did for Russia and China. In fact, as in the case of Marx, he may provide the ideology that guided the revolution in the first place. Plato tried to do this for Syracuse, and the philosophes did it for France in the eighteenth century. Something like this may be done wherever the schools dare to build a new society, as many ask schools to do. Dewey once said that since education is the process of forming fundamental dispositions toward nature and our fellow human beings, philosophy may even be defined as the most general theory of education. Here Dewey was thinking that philosophy is the most general normative theory of education, and what he said is true if it means that philosophy, understood in its widest sense as including theology and poetry as well as philosophy proper, is what tells us what to believe and how to feel about humanity and the universe. It is, however, not necessarily true if it refers to philosophy in the narrower sense or means that all philosophy is philosophy of education in the sense of having the guidance of education as its end. This is not the whole end of classical philosophy or even of philosophy as reconstructed by Dewey; the former aimed at the truth rather than at the guidance of practice, and the latter has other practical ends besides that of guiding the educational enterprise. Certainly, analytical philosophy has other ends. However, although Dewey did not have analytical philosophy in mind, there is nevertheless a sense in which analytical philosophy can also be said to be the most general theory of education. Although it does not seek to tell us what dispositions we should form, it does analyze and criticize the concepts, arguments, and methods employed in any study of or reflection upon education. Again it does not follow that this is all analytical philosophy is concerned with doing. Even if the other things it does–for example, the philosophy of mind or of science–are useful to educators and normative theorists of education, as, it is hoped, is the case, they are not all developed with this use in mind. See also: ARISTOTLE; AUGUSTINE, ST. ; BAGLEY, WILLIAM C. ; BODE, BOYD H. ; BRAMELD, THEODORE; CHILDS, JOHN L. ; COMENIUS, JOHANN; COUNTS, GEORGE S. ; DEWEY, JOHN; FREIRE, PAULO; HERBERT, JOHANN; JAMES, WILLIAM; KILPATRICK, WILLIAM H. ; MONTESSORI, MARIA; NEILL, A. S. ; PESTALOZZI, JOHANN; PLATO; ROUSSEAU, JEAN-JACQUES; WHITEHEAD, ALFRED NORTH. BIBLIOGRAPHY ANDERSON, R. N. , et al. 1968. Foundation Disciplines and the Study of Education. Toronto: Macmillan. ARCHAMBAULT, REGINALD D. , ed. 1965. Philosophical Analysis and Education. New York: Humanities Press. FRANKENA, WILLIAM K. , ed. 1965. Philosophy of Education. New York: Macmillan. JARRET, JAMES L. , ed. 1969. Philosophy for the Study of Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. LUCAS, CHRISTOPHER J. 1969. What Is Philosophy of Education? New York: Macmillan. MORRIS, VAN CLEVE. 1969. Modern Movements in Educational Philosophy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCONNOR, DANIEL JOHN. 1957. Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. London: Routledge. PARK, JOE. 1968. Selected Readings in the Philosophy of Education, 3rd edition. New York: Macmillan. SCHEFFLER, ISRAEL, ed. 1966. Philosophy and Education, 2nd edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. WILLIAM K. FRANKENA Philosophy of education is a field characterized not only by broad theoretical eclecticism but also by a perennial dispute, which started in the mid-twentieth century, over what the scope and purposes of the discipline even ought to be. In the Philosophy of Education article that was included in the previous edition of this encyclopedia, William Frankena wrote, In a sense there is no such thing as the philosophy of education (p. 101). During certain periods of the history of the philosophy of education, there have been dominant perspectives, to be sure: At one time, the field was defined around canonical works on education by great philosophers (Plato of ancient Greece, the eighteenth-century Swiss-born Frenchman Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and others); at other times, the field was dominated, in the United States at least, by the figure of John Dewey (1859–1952) and educational Progressivism; at other times, the field was characterized by an austere analytical approach that explicitly rejected much of what had come before in the field as not even being proper philosophy at all. But even during these periods of dominance there were sharp internal disputes within the field (such as feminist criticisms of the Great Man approach to philosophy of education and vigorous critiques of the analytical method). Such disputes can be read off the history of the professional societies, journals, and graduate programs that institutionalize the field, and they can be documented through a succession of previous encyclopedia articles, which by definition attempt to define and delimit their subject matter. These sorts of struggles over the maintenance of the disciplinary boundary, and the attempt to define and enforce certain methods as paramount, are hardly unique to philosophy of education. But such concerns have so preoccupied its practitioners that at times these very questions seem to become the substance of the discipline, nearly to the exclusion of thinking about actual educational problems. And so it is not very surprising to find, for example, a book such as Philosophers on Education. Consisting of a series of essays written by professional philosophers entirely outside the discipline of philosophy of education, the collection cites almost none of the work published within the discipline; because the philosophers have no doubts about the status of the discipline of philosophy of education, they have few qualms about speaking authoritatively about what philosophy has to say to educators. On the other  hand, a fruitful topic for reflection is whether a more self-critical approach to philosophy of education, even if at times it seems to be pulling up its own roots for examination, might prove more productive for thinking about education, because this very tendency toward self-criticism keeps fundamental questions alive and open to reexamination. Any encyclopedia article must take a stance in relation to such disputes. However much one attempts to be comprehensive and dispassionate in describing the scope and purpose of a field, it is impossible to write anything about it without imagining some argument, somewhere, that would put such claims to challenge. This is especially true of categorical approaches, that is, those built around a list of types of philosophy of education, or of discrete schools of thought, or of specific disciplinary methods. During the period of particular diversity and interdisciplinarity in the field that has continued into the twenty-first century, such characterizations seem especially artificial–but even worse than this, potentially imperial and exclusionary. And so the challenge is to find a way of characterizing the field that is true to its eclecticism but that also looks back reflexively at the effects of such characterizations, including itself, in the dynamics of disciplinary boundary maintenance and methodological rule-setting that are continually under dispute. One way to begin such an examination is by thinking about the impulses that draw one into this activity at all: What is philosophy of education for? Perhaps these impulses can be more easily generalized about the field than any particular set of categories, schools of thought, or disciplinary methods. Moreover, these impulses cut across and interrelate approaches that might otherwise look quite different. And they coexist as impulses within broad philosophical movements, and even within the thought of individual philosophers themselves, sometimes conflicting in a way that might help explain the tendency toward reflexive self-examination and uncertainty that so exercises philosophy of education as a field. The Prescriptive Impulse The first impulse is prescriptive. In many respects this is the oldest and most pervasive inclination: to offer a philosophically defended conception of what the aims and activities of teaching ought to be. In some instances, as in Platos Republic, these prescriptions derive from an overall utopian vision; in other instances, such as seventeenth-century English philosopher John Lockes Some Thoughts Concerning Education or Rousseaus Emile, they derive from a fairly detailed reconception of what the day-to-day activities of teaching should look like; in still other instances, such prescriptions are derived from other social or moral principles, as in various Kantian views of education (even though eighteenth-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant himself had very little to say on the subject). These prescriptive inclinations are in many respects what people expect from philosophy of education: a wiser perspective, a more encompassing social vision, a sense of inspiration and higher purpose. It is what people usually mean when they talk about having a philosophy of education. A broad range of perspectives in the field share this prescriptive impulse: many of these perspectives can be comprised in what was once called the isms approach (perennialism, idealism, realism, Thomism, and so on)–the idea that a set of philosophical premises could generate a comprehensive and consistent educational program. For many years, working out the details of these philosophies of education was considered the main substance of the field, and the debates among the isms were typically at the very basic level debates among fundamentally different philosophical premises. An implication of this approach was that disagreements tended to be broadly paradigmatic in the sense that they were based on all-or-none commitments; one could not, of course, talk about a synthesis of realist and idealist worldviews. One wag has suggested that the isms have more recently been replaced by the ists–less purely philosophical and more social/political theories that now typify many scholars working in philosophy of education (Marxists, feminists, multiculturalists, postmodernists, and so on). These will be characterized as critically oriented philosophies below, but at this stage it is important to see that these perspectives can be equally driven by the prescriptive impulse: many writers (for example, neo-Marxist advocates of Paulo Freires critical pedagogy) offer quite explicit accounts of how education ought to proceed, what it is for, and whose interests it ought to serve. The Analytical Impulse The second impulse that drives much of philosophy of education is analytical. In a broad sense this includes not only philosophical approaches specifically termed analytical philosophy (such as conceptual analysis or ordinary language analysis), but also a broader orientation that approaches the philosophical task as spelling out a set of rational conditions that educational aims and practices ought to satisfy, while leaving it up to other public deliberative processes to work out what they might be in specific. In this enlarged sense, the analytical impulse can be seen not only in analytical philosophy per se but also in studies that focus on the logical and epistemological criteria of critical thinking; in the diagnosis of informal fallacies in reasoning; In certain kinds of liberal theory that spell out broad principles of rights and justice but that remain silent on the specific ends that education ought to serve; and even in some versions of German philosopher Jurgen Habermass theory, which proposes a structure of communicative deliberation in which conversations must satisfy what he calls a set of general validity claims, but which does not specify or constrain in advance what that process of deliberation might yield. The analytical impulse is often seen as expressing a certain philosophical modesty: that philosophers do not prescribe to others what their educational choices ought to be, but simply try to clarify the rational procedures by which those choices should be arrived at. Here metaphors such as referees who try to adjudicate an ongoing activity but remain nonpartisan within it, or groundskeepers who pull up weeds and prepare the soil but do not decide what to plant, tend to predominate in how this version of philosophy of education is presented and justified to others. The idea that philosophy provides a set of tools, and that doing philosophy of education (as opposed to having a philosophy of education) offers a more workmanlike self-conception of the philosopher, stands in sharp contrast with the idea of philosophy as a system-building endeavor. Of course, it must be said that this impulse is not entirely free of the prescriptive inclination, either. For one thing, there is a prescriptiveness about the very tools, criteria, principles, and analytical distinctions that get imported into how problems are framed. These are implicitly (and often explicitly) presented as educational ideals themselves: promoting critical thinking or fostering the conditions for Habermasian communication in the classroom, for example. However rationally defended these might be, they will undoubtedly appear to some as imposed from on high. Moreover, at a deeper level, the analytic/prescriptive distinction is less than clear-cut: a theory of logic, or a theory of communication, however purely procedural it aspires to be, always expresses conceptions of human nature, of society, of knowledge, of language, that contains social and cultural elements that might appear natural or neutral to the advocates of those procedures, but that will be regarded as foreign and particularistic by others (why must I justify my educational choices by your criteria? ). This is not meant as a criticism of the analytical orientation, but it just shows how these impulses can and do coexist, even within accounts that regard themselves as primarily one or the other. The Critical Impulse Similarly, the third impulse, a critical orientation, can coexist with either or both of the others. The critical impulse, like the analytical one, shares the characteristic of trying to clear the ground of misconceptions and ideologies, where these misrepresent the needs and interests of disadvantaged groups; like the prescriptive impulse, the critical impulse is driven by a positive conception of a better, more just and equitable, society. Where the critical impulse differs from the others is in its conception of the contribution philosophy can play in serving these ends. From this orientation, philosophy is not just a set of tools or an abstract, programmatic theory; it is itself a substantive personal and political commitment, and it grows out of deeper inclinations to protect and serve the interests of specific groups. Hence the key philosophical ideas stressed in critically oriented philosophies of education (reflection, counterhegemony, a critique of power, an emphasis upon difference, and so on) derive their force from their capacity to challenge a presumably oppressive dominant society and enable put-upon individuals and groups to recognize and question their circumstances and to be moved to change them. As there are prescriptive and analytical elements in critically oriented philosophies of education, so there can be critical elements in the others. Philosophers of education more driven by a prescriptive or analytical impulse can and do share many of the same social and political commitments as critically oriented philosophers of education; and some of them may see their work as ultimately serving many of the same goals of criticizing hegemonic ideologies and promoting human emancipation. This is why these three impulses or orientations must not be seen as simple categories to which particular philosophies (or philosophers) can be assigned. Stressing their character as impulses highlights the motivational qualities that underlie, and frequently drive, the adoption of particular philosophical views. While philosophers tend to stress the force of argument in driving their adoption of such views, and while they do certainly change their minds because of argument and evidence, at some deeper level they are less prone to changing the very impulses that drive and give vigor to their philosophical investigations. By stressing the ways in which all three impulses can coexist within different philosophical schools of thought, and even within the inclinations of a given philosopher, this account highlights the complex and sometimes even contradictory character of the philosophical spirit. When philosophers of education teach or speak about their views, although they certainly put forth arguments, quotations of and references to literature, and so forth, at a deeper level they are appealing to a shared impulse in their audience, one that is more difficult to argue for directly, and without which the arguments themselves are unlikely to take hold. Implications of the Impulses for Philosophy of Education Given the existence of these three impulses, how can they help in providing an overview of the field of philosophy of education that does not fall into arguments about disciplinary boundary maintenance? First, these very broad orientations are in many respects easier to generalize within the field than would be any specific set of disciplinary criteria; many different kinds of philosophy of education can manifest these sorts of inclinations. Indeed, it makes for strange bedfellows when people consider that despite their vigorous paradigmatic differences they are actually motivated by very similar underlying philosophical commitments. Perhaps this recognition might create a stronger incentive for them to engage one another respectfully across those differences. Second, it is beneficial for philosophers to consider that the validity they attribute to certain kinds of arguments may not be driven simply by the objective force of those arguments, but also by a particular appeal those kinds of arguments have for them. This sort of reflectiveness might be fruitful for various reasons, but a significant benefit could be in raising a persons appreciation for why others may not be moved by the arguments that seem so patently obvious to that person; and why the force of argument alone may not be sufficient to generate philosophical agreement or reconcile disagreement. Given the pervasively eclectic and interdisciplinary nature of the field of philosophy of education, such a spirit of tolerance and inclusiveness, while not needing to be unbounded entirely, would be a valuable corrective to the historical tendency to establish the methodsor the philosophical school that will separate proper philosophy of education from the imposters. Advocates of more prescriptive approaches typically buttress their case for dominance by reference to canonical Great Works (Plato, ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, Locke, Rousseau, Dewey). This sort of system-building across epistemological, ethical, and social/political issues is what the great philosophers do, and it is revealing that for them philosophy of education was rarely seen as a distinct area of inquiry but merely the working out in p

Functionalist and Conflict Perspectives on Family

Functionalist and Conflict Perspectives on Family Introduction The functionalist and the conflict perspectives are two major approaches of sociological analysis. These perspectives can apply on different aspects to help us understand the society, for instance, deviance and social control, culture and socialization and so forth. In this paper, I will first focus on the particular features of these perspectives, then mainly focus on family and social stratification and comment on the insight or criticism of functionalist and conflict perspectives in understanding these areas in the society. Functionalist-the conception of society Firstly, let focus on the particular features of Functionalism, this approach is inspired by Emile Durkheim idea of society and his sociology is often referred as structural functionalism. (Dillon 2011, p. 79) The Functionalism suggested that the society is compared to a biological organism that can assumed as a system or structure made up of many integrated parts, the society seen as a structure will key institutions fulfil different functions for the survive and continuation of the society, it is named as functional pre- requisites. (Liu 2014, p. 6) Functionalist-the nature of society Also, the functionalists assumes the nature of society is characterized by order and stability, without collective conscience or shared values and beliefs, achieving social order is impossible, they believes in value consensus, which are members of society agreeing upon shared belief about right and wrong can help the society to run smoothly and is the best for the society as a whole.(Liu 2014, p. 5) And if members of society have shared values, therefore they also have similar identities, this helps cooperation and avoids conflict. According to Liu (2014), conflict is possible, but considered as dysfunctional from temporary disturbances in the system, and order would be restored as society develops. (Liu 2014, p. 5) The chief form of social conflict that Durkheim addressed was a crime. Durkheim saw crime as a factor in public health, an integral part of all healthy societies. (Durkheim 1938, p. 67) Functionalist-the relationship between individuals and the society Besides the nature of society, functionalist also had theorized about the relationship between individuals and the society. Functionalists believe that individuals are shaped by the society to perform different roles and have different norms that need to follow in accordance with their social statues that ensure the smooth running of society. Members of society have values consensus that I mentioned in the above paragraph, social order is based on this consensus and cooperation among members. Conflict perspectives-the conception of society The next perspective that we need to discuss is conflict perspectives, conflict perspectives are inspired by Karl Marx and mostly related to his theory. Marxism, similar with functionalists also has emphasis on the importance of the social structure. The society is made up of distinct groups that have different interest, values and belief. However C. Wright Mills, the founder of modern conflict theory, have a different view on this aspect with functionalists. In Millss view, social structures are created through conflict between people with differing interests and resources. Individuals and resources, in turn, are influenced by these structures and by the unequal distribution ofpowerand resources in the society. (Knapp 1994, p. 228-246) Conflict perspectives-the nature of society Unlike functionalists who believe people cooperate to maintain the social order and the stability, conflict perspectives suggested that the nature of society is characterized by conflicts, because of the struggles among group of scarce resources. The existence of separate interests mean there is always having possible for conflicts. (Liu 2014, p. 8) The conflict perspective believes rich and powerful people force social order on the poor and the weak. Conflict theorists, for example, Karl Marx uses two class models to analyse the capitalist society. As the economic system is the base structure of society in Marx’s view, the capital class who owned the means of production exploited the working class who had to sell their labor by paying them less in wages than the wealth they could produce. The capitalists became richer through control the mean of the production. (Liu 2014, p. 9-10) Conflict perspectives-the relationship between individuals and the society We can observe that conflict perspective also have assumption of the relationship between individuals and the society. Similar with Functionalism, Conflict perspective believes individuals are shaped by the society and the positions of their social groups. However, conflict perspectives put effort to focus on the conflict side. Different social groups come into conflict and thus cannot have consensus with others. In capitalist society, the social order is known as â€Å"ruling class ideology† to support the status quo. It distorts the true nature of society and creating a mistaken belief about society which is â€Å"false class consciousness†. (Liu 2014, p. 11) After the discussion on the particular features of Functionalism and Conflict Perspectives, then we should focus on the usefulness of the two perspectives in understanding two essential areas in society, family and social stratification. However, let have a short introduction of these perspectives’ assumption first. The assumption of functionalism in family Broadly speaking, the functionalism has focused on the functions of the family in society and for its members. It looks at how the family as an institution to maintain the social order and stability, and the significance of the family for its individual members. George Peter Murdock, one of the major contributors to the field of anthropology and a functionalist in the field of Sociology has proposed that all families have four significant functions: sexual, economic, reproductive, and educational. These functions are important and fulfil needs in all societies. He proposes that the best institution to perform these functions is the family. The family is the primary point of socialization to provide children with values and norms. Family also stabilizes adult personalities. A family unit provides emotional security for each person in the relationship. (Haralambos Holborn, 2000, p. 509) We can observed that the insight of the functionalism is it can point out the essential features of family can provide positive role for people can become stable and maintain social order. However, Murdock’s approach was criticized as too mechanical with a classification system. Objections were also raised that his methodology was biased, because he has studied about 250 societies, from small hunting communities to industrial societies, but he used Western standards in comparative analysis of all different cultures. Also, Structural- functionalist perspectives emphasized the positive and functional aspects of the modern family, neglecting its dysfunctional aspects, which including conflict and violence that take place in the family, for instance, over 30% to 40% homicides in Hong Kong took place within family. (Liu 2014, p.13) The assumption of conflict perspectives in family Meanwhile, conflict perspectives, especially the Marxist have a different understanding in the family aspects. As we know that, in Marxist perspectives, the economy is the base structure that support several of the superstructure; Family is one of the superstructure was providing support to the economic base. Thus, the family institution helps fuel the capitalist economy with an abundance of labour. For instance, family can be an institution of nurturing children to be the next generation of workers, hence capitalist class can recruit them cheaply. Women also as a reserve army of labour can be cheap additional source of labour that helps to keep wages down. At the cultural level, the institution of family helps socializing individuals into accepting existing economic and political arrangements. It functions to implant the ideology of the capitalist class into the consciousness of the populace. (Liu 2014, p.150) Although the Marxist perspective points to the intriguing connection between the family and economy, and provide an alternative view, it has also received much criticism. One of the biggest criticisms is Marxist too simplified to explain the negative sides of the family, focus on the exploitation and inequality within family ignores the supports one can get from the family. Also, the various features of the family are regarded as no more the features and requirements of the economic base; family is only the institution solely develops to support the capitalist society. It is kind of reductionist explanatory framework that is too simplistic. (Liu 2014, p. 17) The assumption of functionalism in social stratification Functionalists consider that social stratification has important consequences for the operation of society. Davis and Moore argue that this system is both functional and inevitable. Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore (1945) gave an argument for social stratification as a solution to a problem by any societies. They argue that the most difficult jobs in any society have the highest incomes in order to motivate individuals to fill the roles needed by the division of labour. Thus inequality serves social stability (Davis and Wilbert, 1970, p. 242-249) In other words, social stratification can have a ‘placing and motivating’ function for individuals in the social structure.(Liu 2014, p. 9) The social stratification system allocates each individual to jobs and rewards them according to the functional importance of the job. This thesis implies that societies become more productive as they approach meritocracy. However, too much focus on meritocracy can erode the social structure of kinship and community. In addition, it might encourage some categories of individuals to look down upon others. Also, Tumin (1953) has critiqued that the differential rewards are more possibly a result of differences in power rather than of functional importance. The rationalization of existing system of stratification and inequality by an appeal to the inevitability of stratification and inequality is fallacious. (Liu 2014, p. 11) The assumption of conflict perspectives in social stratification Rather than functionalists believe the social stratification had the positive role in the society, the Marxists believe the stratification in term of class is more divisive than integrative. Marxists use Two-class model, owners and non-owners of the means of production to determine the class stratification. The class conflict between the capitalist class and the working class would soon fall into either the bipolar class positions of capitalist or worker. The extreme polarization of the two classes would lead working class to realize the conflict and their class interest; they would eventually organize themselves into a potent social-political force to protect its class interest and fight back, at the end leading to a revolution that bring a new economic conditions, the end of the capitalist system and later to communism in which all classes and states are abolished.(Liu 2014, p. 14) Although the Marxism has it insight of the social stratification, there is still some criticism of it. For instance, it is a dispute over the bi-polar class structure, the class structure of society is difficult to depict; two-class model is too simplistic. In fact, in modern society, there is a new class rising, which is middle class that have professionals who manage but not own the means of production cannot easily categorize into the two-class model. Moreover, Marx’s prophecy of class struggle and revolution took place in the pre-industrial societies, but we can observe that Russia, China and Vietnam both are not industrial societies or a great capitalist society, but happen the revelation of the communist revolution. The revolution of worker is fewer in the rapidly industrializing western rather Asia. It is not like Marx’s theory suggested. Also, Marx predicted the inevitability of the worker revolution in capitalist societies. However there are several of factors can account for the absence of the revolution predicted by Marx, for instance, more extensive worker organisation, the demands of workers have been institutionalised through the creation of trade union and more extensive legal protection, capitalists provide better conditions of work through law enforcement and security systems contain workers frustrations. Through the welfare provision and improve the conditions for workers can made compromises between two classes. (Liu 2014, p.16) Conclusion To conclude, we can observe that both two perspectives had their insight and criticisms. Because of the societies are rapidly changing in nowadays, hence it is hardly suitable to apply in the every different societies. Work Cited Davis, Kingsley and Wilbert E. Moore. Some Principles of Stratification.American Sociological Review,10 (2), 242-9. 1970. Dillon, Michele.Introduction to Sociological Theory: Theorists, Concepts, and Their Applicability to the Twenty-first Century (2nd Edition). Chichester, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. Print. Durkheim, E.The Rules of Sociological Method.Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1938. Liu, Garland. Lecture notes: Topic 4 (Sociological perspectives). The Open University of Hong Kong, 2014. Print. Liu, Garland. Lecture notes: Topic 5 (Family, social change and women’s role). The Open University of Hong Kong, 2014. Print. Liu, Garland. Lecture notes: Topic 6 (Social stratification). The Open University of Hong Kong, 2014. Print. Knapp, P.One World – Many Worlds: Contemporary Sociological Theory(2nd Ed.). Harpercollins College Div, 1994.

Overview of Pediatrics Malignancies

Overview of Pediatrics Malignancies Muhammad Tahir Saleem I am rotated in the pediatric hematology and oncology ward for clinical practicum as part of the Masters of Nursing (MSc.N) program. Hematology is the branch of medicine that deals with the diseases and related to blood and its functional abnormalities including anemia, polycythemia and hemophilia and all bleeding disorders (Brunner and Suddarths, 2010). Oncology is the branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of the cancer in the body (Brunner and Suddarths, 2010). Since human body is composed of cells so the cancer originates from abnormally occurring cells in the body (Porth Matfin, 2009). There are many definition of the word cancer in medicine, but whatever the way of defining cancer is adopted, the definition should incorporate two properties: uncontrollable growth of cells originating from normal tissues, and property of killing of host by means of using components of surrounding tissues or by spreading to other organs (metastases) to other organ and sys tems of the human body (Itano Taoka, 2005). Some experts define cancer as the autonomous growth of the body cells that is unresponsive to the physiological growth-control mechanism of the body which is responsible for homogenous development of all body organs normally. Other have define cancer as a condition in which normally growing cells lose their structure, appearance and functioning (shoib book). The cells also lose their self-destructive ability (apoptosis) to die after certain period of time as they do normally (e.g. red blood cells die after 120 days) and the cells tend to live longer and at times become immortal and disturb the functions of other normal cells. There are certain terminologies that are frequently referred to the set of events occurred during the pathogenesis of cancer. These terminologies are dysplasia, metaplasia and anaplasia. Dysplasia is a disruption in the size, appearance, and arrangement of cells and tissues (Porth Matfin, 2009). Dysplasia is abnormal tissue development but not yet cancerous. Dysplastic changes frequently occur in the mucosal lining of the mouth, nose, intestine and cervix where the cells keep on going under cellular multiplication, differentiation, organization and replacement of new cells (Porth Matfin, 2009). The epithelial lining of elementary canal (mouth to anus) completely changes in three days. So it is the frequent site of papilloma formation as a result of dysplastic changes. The epithelial lining of the mouth of cervix also changes as a result of dysplastic changes due to human papilloma virus (Porth Matfin, 2009). Dysplasia is also present in chronic inflammatory and proliferative lesio ns, and it is recognized as part of a developmental phase of many cancers. Metaplasia is the substitution of one cell type with another cell type, for example in smokers ciliated columnar bronchial epithelium is replaced by non-ciliated squamous epithelium due to the constant exposure of smoke to the bronchus (Porth Matfin, 2009). Metaplasia is also considered as the developmental phase in many neoplasms. Anaplasia is the structural change and cellular appearance and inability to perform the normal functions of a cell. This stage of cellular changes is known as cancerous (Porth Matfin, 2009). Anaplastic cells resemble the undifferentiated primitive cells that have not developed specialized structure and functioning typical of their tissue of origin. In other words, the newly formed tissue from muscle cell or nerve cell, for example ,remain in the premature state as a result of anaplastic changes and do not perform its original functions. The degree of anaplasia may differ from one type of cancer cells to other type of cancers from poorly differentiated to undifferentiated cells; sometimes the tumor cells are so undifferentiated that it is not possible to decide the tissue from which the cancer cells are originated (Porth Matfin, 2009). Here, the terms hyperplasia and hypertrophy are worth mentioning. Hyperplasia and hypertrophy are normal physiological responses. Hyperplasia is defined as an increase in the cellular count in a tissue or organ causing an increase in the size of that organ, whereas hypertrophy is the increase in the size of cells not the number (Porth Matfin, 2009). Neither hypertrophy, nor the hyperplasia is the synonym of tumor growth. Hyperplasia is induced by know stimuli and it is a controlled process and it stops as the stimuli is removed. One example of stimuli induced hyperplasia is the increase in the size and number of cells of uterus in pregnancy under the influence estrogen for accommodation of developing embryo. The uterus comes to normal state after the stimuli of estrogen is gone after delivery. In addition, hyperplasia may also serve a useful role in the body, for example breast tissue undergoes hyperplastic changes after pregnancy for production of milk or re-forming the liver with structurally typical hepatocytes after partial hepatectomy. Abnormal cancerous development follows none of these usual physiological rules or purposes (Porth Matfin, 2009). However, cancerous cells may eventually employ the hyperplasia in its pathogenesis pathways. Because, hyperplasia and dysplasia often fall into the development of many tumors by months or years, timely identification and proper treatment at this early stage in the pathological process may help to prevent malignancies (Porth Matfin, 2009). For example, the Papanicolaou Smear (or pap smear) allows pathologists to distinguish between normal, dysplastic or cancerous cells. The pap-smear is a technique that allows early detection of the cervical cancer and it has enormously reduced the morbidity and mortality of cervical cancer. Pathologically, tumors can be classified into benign and malignant. The word benign means kind, gentle or caring and suggests that such tumor are harmless. These tumors are mostly encapsulated by well defined fibrous cover that separates the mass from surrounding tissues. A benign tumor, neither invade surrounding tissue nor metastasizes. These tumor exhibit lesser degree of anaplasia and grow slowly. Recurrence is very rare after surgical removal in benign tumors. The benign tumors are named by adding suffix -oma in the name of tissue they are originating in. For example, Lipoma, Adenoma, fibroma and papilloma are some of the example of adding suffix –oma in the type of origin of tumor (Itano Taoka, 2005). Whereas, malignant tumors usually infiltrate or invade surrounding tissues, these tumors are not encapsulated, genetically instable and with greater degree of anaplasia from the tissue of origin. They grow autonomously with no control of body homogenous development. The fo llowing table compares the properties of benign and malignant tumors (Itano Taoka, 2005). Difference Between Benign and Malignant Tumor Characteristic Benign Tumor Malignant Tumor Structure and differentiation Typical of tissue of origin Atypical of tissue origin Rate of growth Usually slow May be slow, rapid, very rapid Progression Slowly progressive (may remain stationary; may regress): rarely fatal if treated Usually progressive, almost always fatal if untreated Mode of growth Expansion with capsule Local infiltration and/or metastasis to distant sites Tissue destruction None Common, ulceration and necrosis Recurrence Rare Common Prognosis Fatal only if surgically inaccessible Fatal if uncontrolled (untreated) Core Curriculum of Oncology Nursing. St. Louis, Messori: Elsevier; 2005 Cancer can also be characterized in two types on the basis of structure, solid tumor and cancer of the blood. Cancer of the blood and lymphatic systems are mostly leukemia and lymphomas, where as solid tumors are originating in the organ like central nervous system, kidneys, eyes, bones and in soft tissues. Childhood malignancies mostly originate in blood, bone marrow and in lymphatic systems. Cancer of genitourinary system, respiratory system, and caner of digestive system are rare in children as the statistics furnished by the cancer research organization UK, 2012 (www.cancerresearch.org). The incidence chart of the childhood cancers is as follows: The incidence chart of the childhood cancers Cancer Type Incidence Leukemia 34% CNS tumors 23% Lymphoma 11% Neuroblastoma 6% Renal tumor (e.g. Wilm’s tumor) 6% Soft tissue sarcomas 6% Bone tumors 5% Retinoblastoma 3% Epithelial neoplasms 3% Germ cell tumors 2% Liver Tumors 1% Oxford handbook of Pediatric hematology and oncology, 2010. A brief description of pediatric cancers is given below. Leukemia Leukemia is the cancer that affects the cell lining of white blood cells. White blood cells are of tow type; granulocytes (Lymphoid cell) and agranulocytes (Myeloid cell). Lymphoid cells are further subdivided in B-cell Lymphocytes and T-Cell Lymphocytes, whereas, myeloid cells are of three types, Neutrophils, Basophils and Eosinophil (Porth Matfin, 2009). Leukemia is further sub divided into acute and chronic; acute leukemia are termed when the anaplastic changes occurred in the pre matured leukocytes that has just transformed from the stem cells in the bone marrow, whereas, chromic leukemias’ are termed when the anaplastic changes occur in more matured stage or adult leukocytes. The four types of leukemias are as follows Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Acute Myeloid Leukemia Chronic Myeloid Leukemia Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia accounts for 80-90% among all types of leukemia in childhood. AML accounts for 15% and CML 5% (Itano Taoka, 2005). Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) is further subdivided incidence wise according to cell linage involved as elaborated by Moore and Hurvitz (2008). Pre B-cell 70% T-Cell 15-25% B-Cell 15% Treatment of acute leukemia involves induction for complete remission, followed by intensification and maintenance therapy. Prophylaxis to the CNS is done by Intra-thecal (IT) chemo administration. Standard treatment for ALL leads to long term remission in more than 85% of cases. Induction therapy employs Vincristine, Prednisone, and L-Asparagenase +/- Danurubicin (depending upon risk satisfaction) Intensification; all induction medicine with the inclusion of CNS prophylaxis Maintenance therapy includes oral Mercaptopurin (6MP) with methotrexate (MTX) weekly for two to three years Many patients in the chemo-pediatrics receive monthly intra-thecal (IT) pulses of Vincristine with prednisolone/dexa as part of maintenance. One or two cycles of a re-induction regimen were often added but not in contemporary practice (Moore Hurvitz, 2008). Good prognostic factors for ALL: WBC Bad Prognostic factors for ALL: WBC>50,000/uL, age10years, Other poor prognostic factors are massive organomegaly, CNS involvement at diagnosis, medaistinal mass and failure to achieve remission by day 14 to 28 of induction, with presence of Philadelphia chromosome. Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) AML requires intensive chemotherapy followed by hemotopotic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) hematopoietic stem cell transplantation if a suitable matched related donor is available. Five years survivals for these patients are more than 85% with good prognosis (Bailey Skinner, 2010). Lymphomas Hodgkin and Non Hodgkin Lymphomas: Lymphomas are the tumor of lymphocytes (B T cells) that originate in the lymph tissue that is fixed to organs and lymph nodes not in peripheral circulation. As in the case of leukemias, lymphomas also involved both B-cell and T-cell lymphocytes but they are confined to the lymph nodes or other lymphatic organs not the peripheral blood. They typically presents with a solid mass in a lymph node, spleen, bone marrow and in any organ. Other than lymph tissue, they may present in tonsils, skin, brain, bowel and bone. Lymphomas are closely related to lymphoid leukemias that involves the circulating lymphatic cells. Lymphomas are better controlled by treating with chemotherapy. Five years survivals for these pediatric lymphoma patients are more than 90% with good prognosis (Itano Taoka, 2005). Brain tumors These are of four types, depending upon the type of cells from where the tumor is initiating. Gliomas, Appendimomas, Meduloblastomas, and Schewanomas are some of the types of central nervous system tumors (CNS). Some CNS tumors are associated with high mortality and respond poorly chemo. Cranio-spinal radiation is often employed as part of the treatment regimen for older kids but radiation is deferred in children age less than 3 years due to the chance of fibrosis of growing skull bones and vertebral bones; however radiation is avoided in most of the younger children (Bailey Skinner, 2010). Tumor of the renal system Wilm’s tumor is tumor of renal system. Histological name of the cancer is nephroblastoma. It needs radiation and chemo both for the eradication of disease. Size of the tumor is reduced by using chemo and radiation. After the shrinkage of renal tumor, surgery proved to be beneficial. Three years survival is 75% in patients of nephroblastoma (Bailey Skinner, 2010). Soft tissue tumors Soft tissue tumors originate from connective tissue of cartilage and bone forming fibrous tissue, smooth muscles, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, fat tissue, synovial tissue, and peripheral nerves. The most common type of soft tissue tumor in childhood is rhebdomysarcoma. Rhabdomyosarcoma: It originates form the striated muscle tissue. It most commonly originates in head and neck area. Only 15% presents outside of the head and neck region. It is treated with chemo and radiation therapy. The prognosis of this cancer is good if treatment is started at early stage (Bailey Skinner, 2010). Retinoblastoma Retina is nervous tissue. Retina is only neuronal tissue that is visible through the naked eye. The tumor that arises from it also primitive neuronal ectodermic stem cells that were remain undifferentiated in fetal life and present like tumor in the very first years of life. Most patient get die due to extension of these neuronal tumors to CNS through optic nerve. In localized tumor survival is 100% but in metastatic tumor the survival ratio decrease. As described by Bailey and Skinner, (2010) many chemotherapeutic agents are used in treatment of retinoblastoma e.g. Vincristine, Actinomycin D, cyclopahsmamide, and doxorubicin. Germ Cell Tumors This tumor arises from primitive stem cells of the fetal life that remained immature during fetal development and were not able to fully develop (differentiate) to mature cells of the organs. Human embryo develops from the three layers of the germ cells. These layers are ectoderm (outermost), mesoderm (middle layer) and endoderm (innermost). Ectoderm develops into skin, sweat glands and nervous system, mesoderm develop into bones flesh, blood vessels and lymphoid tissue whereas, endoderm develop into genitourinary, gastrointestinal and respiratory system. Germ cell tumor arises from the immature stem cells that were left undifferentiated in the fetal life. This tumor has good prognosis in early diagnosis (Langhorne, Fulton Otto, 2007). The rotation in pediatric oncology ward is challenging as well as exciting. The nurses here have to be extra conscious about all care related issues. Building rapport with the children is paramount to the effective nursing care of them. Childhood cancers are rare but children diagnosed with cancer may develop subtle anti social behavior during the long term therapy of the disease. This makes nurses to be equipped with extra psychosocial adaptation with children. As chemotherapy is widely used as the treatment modality besides surgery and radiation therapy, hence, pediatric population is vulnerable more than the adult in developing disease/treatment related debilitating symptoms like febrile neutropenia and tumor lysis syndrome . Parents’ education is paramount in adhering to the treatment regimen and prevention of nutropenia. Many patients came in pediatric oncology ward for port-a-cath needle insertion and dressing of PICC line. Nurses are meticulously involved in caring abou t the patients. Helping the physician in safely administration of intrathecal medication (IT) is also the job of nurses. The rotation bringing new horizons of learning and I am learning a lot about pediatric cancer care a lot. Reference: Moore, T.B. Hurvitz, C.G.H. (2008). In Cassiato,D.A. Territo, M.C. (2008). Manual of clinical oncology. 6th Ede. Philadelphia: LWW. Ch 18. Pp 397-408. Childhood cancer incidence: Retrieved from: http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-info/cancerstats/childhoodcancer/ Site last updated 14/11/2012. Bailey.S, Skinner, R.(2010).Oxford specialist handbook of pediatric hematology and oncology. Oxford university press. Porth, C.M, Matfin, G., (2009). Pathophysiology concept of altered health. Ed 8th. Philadelphia: LWW. Ch 5. Pp. 95-98. Langhorne, M.E, Fulton, J.S, Otto, S.E., (2007). Oncology Nursing. Ed 5th. St Louis, Messori: Mosbay. Ch3. P3. Itano, J. K, Taoka, K. N. (2005). Core Curriculum of Oncology Nursing. St. Louis, Messori: Elsevier. Ch 20. Pp 443.

The Patriot Essay -- essays research papers

The Patriot, written by Robert Rodat, takes place in South Carolina and reveals a widowed father’s love for his family and trying to keep them together, despite the Revolutionary War that had begun. Trying to keep his demons from reappearing, Benjamin Martin faces his fear of his past coming back to haunt him after serving in the French and Indian War. Martin is a South Carolina farmer who lost his wife, Elizabeth, and reluctantly signs up to join the Continental Army after his eldest son, Gabriel joined the regulars to fight against the British. After a battle began on Martin’s plantation, Benjamin helped wounded soldiers from both sides and was approached by William Tavington, a colonel with the British. During this confrontation Tavington informed Martin that anyone who assisted soldiers of the Continental Army would lose their home. Tavington then threatened Martin’s children and captured Gabriel, a military courier delivering dispatches between Continental A rmy units, and a younger son, Thomas was killed by Colonel Tavington, while trying to save his brother’s life. And despite Martin’s soulful plea, his son was not spared nor was his home. Leaving five children to fight with his eldest son, Gabriel, Benjamin enlists a group of peasants, old warriors, farmers, and one black slave to fight with the militia against the British soldiers. The remaining five children; Meg, Nathan, Samuel, William and Susan are left with their aunt on their mother’s side, Charlotte. The rag-...

Inspector Goole in J.B.Priestley’s play, An Inspector Calls :: English Literature

What is the function of Inspector Goole in J.B.Priestley’s play, An Inspector Calls? An Inspector Calls was written in 1945 by John Boynton Priestley. The play was set in 1912 two years before the first world war so from this their would have been irony as the audience would know. The play is set in a dining room in the Birling’s residence in Brumley, North Midlands which was a fictional industrial city. At the time the play was set the world was a very class conscience place with higher and lower class depending on one thing: money. The country was set up in two categories with the socialists which consists of the Political System in which ways of community and sharing are promoted and capitalists which is the political system which values private ownership and the individual. The country really was involved around capitalist values. For example there was no welfare state. In this essay I will be focusing on the main functions of the inspector. The inspectors role is a key to the plot and conclusion and delivers morals and principles and how the functions of the inspector get used in specific places throughout the play. The play opens with the Birling family and Gerald celebrating the engagement of Gerald and Sheila. It is dramatically effective because you get to see all the characters in one room therefore seeing their personalities, instead of them being introduced one-by-one. They are celebrating and at ease which means they are a little bit drunk. The mood is very relaxed and everyone having a nice time. From the stage directions it says the mood is â€Å"pink and intimate†. We learn from Mr.Birling that he is selfish and a capitalist from his speech. He sums himself up within the opening of the play saying â€Å"that a man has to mind his own business and look after himself and his own-and-†(act one page 11) this indicates that he is a selfish man and cares for his family only (Mr.Birling is a capitalist). The mood is soon to change from relaxed and chilled to harsh when the inspector arrives. At the last word of Mr. Birlings speech the door bell rings at the right time to create tension, the doorbell ring was purposely put their to create tension and to stop Birling preaching about capitalist views. Its clever even how one word â€Å"and† can be such a tensional word as the door bell rings. In the stage directions â€Å"the lighting should be pink and intimate until the inspector arrives, and then it should be brighter and harder† it changes to as if all the characters were being

Iraq: A Country On The Rise Essay -- essays research papers

Iraq: A Country on the Rise   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Iraq is a country that is on the rise. After being crushed by allied troops for their invasion of Kuwait, they have begun the slow rebuilding process. In this report, I will discuss the basic geographic features of Iraq, and other various important features such as mineral wealth, vegetation, ect.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Iraq's total area is 271,128 square miles (just slightly more than twice the size of Idaho). It's capital, Baghdad, is located at 33.20 north longitude, 44.24 east latitude. It's boundaries are 2,222 miles long. With 906 miles bordering Iran, 83 miles bordering Jordan, 149 miles bordering Kuwait, 502 miles bordering Saudi Arabia, 376 miles bordering Turkey, and a coastline 36 miles long. The terrain in Iraq is mostly broad plains, with reedy marshes in the southeast, mountains along toe borders with Iran and Turkey.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Climate in Iraq is most desert, with mild to cool winters and dry, hot cloudless summers. The northernmost regions along Iranian and Turkish borders experience cold winters and occasional heavy snows. Iraq has few natural resources, consisting of Crude oil, natural gas, various phosphates, and sulfur. Their maritime (ocean) clams are just the continental shelf on their coastline, and twelve nautical miles beyond that.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Iraq and Iran have just recently restored diplomatic relations in the year 1990, but are still trying to work out written agreements settling their disputes from their eight-year war concerning definite borders, prisoners-of-war, and freedom of navigation and sovereignty over the Shatt-al-Arab waterway. In April of 1991, Iraq officially accepted the UN Security Council's Resolution 687, which states that Iraq accepts the boundaries that were set in it's 1963 agreement with Kuwait, and ending all claims to the Bubiyan and Warbah Islands, and all claims to Kuwait. On June 17, 1992, the UN Security council reaffirmed the finality of the Boundary Demarcation Commission's decisions. Disputes also occur with Syria about water rights on the Euphrates, and a potential dispute with Turkey for the Tigris and Euphrates river.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Iraq has some environmental problems, consisting of air and water pollution, soil degradation (caused by saliniza... ... had better not. The Department of State warns all US citizens against traveling to Iraq. Conditions within the country remain unsettled and dangerous. The US does not maintain diplomatic relations with Iraq, and cannot provide normal consular protective services to US citizens.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A passport and visa are required to travel to Iraq (along with an AIDS test if you are planning to stay longer than 5 days). Since 1991, US passports are not valid for travel in, to, or through Iraq without authorization from the Department of state. An adapter is necessary to use Iraqi electrical outlets. Although Iraq does not have an embassy in the US, it does have an interest section in the Algerian Embassy in Washington, DC. Iraqi nation holidays are the following: New Years Day-Jan. 1, Iraqi Army Day-Jan. 6, Id al-Fitr-Apr. 16, Id al-Adha-Jun. 21, 1958 Revolution-Jul. 14, 1968 Revolution-Jul. 17,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Although Iraq may have it's problems now, it is a country on the rise. It's economy is stabilizing. and it's government is in the process of working it bugs out. Some day, Iraq may be one of the world's superpowers, just like the US.

Assignments Essay

Choose one scientist involved in formulating the modern periodic table and describe why their work made a significant contribution to the development of the periodic table. Dmitri Mendeleev’s contribution to the modern day periodic table is widely renowned in the history of chemical science. Mendeleev was the creator of the periodic table; arranging 63 known elements in order of their atomic mass. His discovery made a significant impact in the development of the periodic table as it set the foundation for further progress to occur in the future. Dmitri Mendeleev anticipated the existence of new elements to be discovered, therefore leaving gaps in the ascending order of elements. Mendeleev was the notable discoverer of isotopes and rare gasses. In summary, science is a blend of logic and imagination and Mendeleev demonstrated these attributes through developing the periodic table (Western Oregon University, 2012). Dmitri Mendeleev’s creation of the periodic table was considered one of the greatest triumphs in chemistry history as it allowed for further exploration to begin. Why do you think the development of the periodic table required input from a range of different people? As many are aware, the development of the periodic table required numerous scientists such as John Newlands and Julius Lothar Mieyer. If not for these men, Mendeleev’s table would not be as accurate as it is today. As time progressed, technology advanced scientists’ discovered noble gasses and determined each elements atomic number. Many scientists played a vital role in developing our modern day periodic table as each person had a different knowledge and understanding of chemistry. To conclude, the periodic table was never one man’s discovery, but the result of numerous scientists’ explorations and experimentations. Each played a vital part in challenging/confirming the theories of their predecessors, recognising different patterns and properties between different elements. How did improvements in technology influence the development of the periodic table? With the improvement in technology from the 1800’s through to present day the development of the periodic table has undergone significant changes. Since the development of the table by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, scientists have utilised new technologies to produce a more accurate representation of the chemical elements. Scientists such as William Ramsay, who discovered noble gasses, drastically changed the periodic table adding a whole new group. In 1913, Henry Mosely significantly affected the periodic table with his discovery of nuclear charge. Ultimately, the most technological change is attributed to Glen Seaborg in 1940. His work on the discovery of atomic number reconfigured the periodic table, awarding him the noble prize in chemistry in 1951. Without technological advancements such as nuclear reactors, telescope and the chemical bonds system (Alexander Crum Brow)). Seaborg possibly would not have been able to discover what he did. In summary, the advancement in technology has importantly altered Mendeleev’s original periodic table and will most likely continue with new synthetic elements being added. Briefly describe information we now have about atoms that was not available to earlier scientists who were identifying patterns and trends within early versions of the periodic table. What trends could they see, compared to what we now know? In the 20th Century, scientists have a greater understanding of atoms and the patterns they follow compared to those who invented the early versions of the periodic table. It was noted in the early 1800’s, that matter consisted of lumpy particles called atoms. Towards the end of the century, J. J Thompson discovered electrons and their negative charge. He hypothesised that atoms would therefore contain positive charged particles. In 1869, scientists began to recognised patterns in properties originating from a number of known elements, eventually developing the classification methods. During the early versions of the periodic table, it was determined by Henry Mosely to arrange elements in order of their atomic number. This pattern followed the periodic table concept more accurately than the arrangement of atomic weight. Another notable trend originated from glen Seaborg in the 1940’s. Seaborg artificially produced new heavy mass elements such as neptunium and plutonium. Thus creating a new block in the table called ‘antinides’. To conclude our knowledge of atoms, their structure and patterns they form in the periodic table originating from the 18th century has developed. Essay Part This essay will provide a clear insight into the element of chlorine. It will include detail on the history of chlorine, its’ structure, position on the periodic table and the ions formed. The element of Chlorine was discovered quite early compared to many other elements. Carl Wilhelm Scheele first produced the element in 1774 in Sweden. Scheele came across this element after combining the mineral pyrolusite and hydrochloric acid together. He discovered that this new gas reacted with metals, dissolved slightly in water and bleached flowers and leaves. At first, Scheele believed that the gas produced was oxygen, however Sir Humphry Davy proved in 1810 that this gas was new. Sir Davy then went on to name the new substance Chlorine after the Greek word (Chloros) meaning greenish yellow. Chlorine’s element structure is similar to other elements that are situated in the halogens group on the periodic table. This element comprises an atomic number of 17 and weight of 35. 5. Chlorine is known to be an extremely reactive gas therefore providing reasons as to why it directly combines with the majority of other elements except for the noble gasses. This element is arranged into three shells. The first two shells are filled with electrons. Meanwhile the third contains only seven electrons. Chlorine is a naturally occurring element, arising in the Earth’s crust and seawater. It’s abundance in the Earth is about 100-300 parts per million (Chemistry Explained, 2013). This element is considerably well known to be a dense gas, containing a density rating of 3. 21g per litre. Chlorine is quite a strong oxidizing agent. In other words, it is notorious for taking on electrons from other substances. Nevertheless, the element chlorine’s specific element structure dictates as to why it is positioned within the halogens group. Chlorine has been specifically positioned within the periodic table situated in group 17 because it belongs to the halogens family. It is known to be the second lightest element in the halogens group. Chlorine is situated in this group because it contains similar chemical properties to other halogen family members. Some chemical and physical properties of these elements are; that are very reactive, they contain seven valence electrons, they are poor conductors and they are brittle when solid. Chlorine has a melting point of -100. 98Â °Cand a boiling point of -34. Â °C. Chlorine is heavier than air and proved very effective as a chemical weapon in the trenches and fox holes dug in World War One. Chlorine has been specifically positioned towards the top end of the halogens as it holds a notably low atomic number compared to other elements that are also a part of the same group. In summary, Mendeleev and Seaborg essentially position chlorine within the halogens group due to its similar characteristics. The elements included in the halogens group are fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). Fluorine and chlorine, both have seven valence electrons in their outer shell. That seven-electron trait applies to all of the halogens. They are all just one electron shy of having full shells. The halogens have the trait of combining with many different elements. They are very reactive. You will often find them bonding with metals and elements from Group One of the periodic table. Fluorine is the most reactive of the halogens and reactivity decreases as you move down the column. Therefore, Chlorine is the second most reactive. As the atomic number increases, the atoms get bigger. Their chemical properties change just a small amount when compared to the element right above them on the table. Chlorine forms a negative ion by reason of a greater amount of electrons than protons. This atom has 17 protons and electrons. Due to the last unfilled electron shell, this element transforms into a negative ion. In simpler terms, a negative ion contains one more electron than proton. In scientific language, a negative ion is otherwise known as an anion. Chlorine is converted into an ion once gaining an extra electron from a different element. This process is essential for creating an ionic bond. Chlorine’s ion is known to be extremely soluble in water, thus giving reasons as to why it bonds with sodium, forming sodium chloride. The ionic bond that forms is measured in terms of valence, meaning how much an element wants to bond with another element. To summarise, chlorine and sodium are a direct example of an ionic bond that forms when two ions chemically attach together. The uses of chlorine in everyday life are vast and continue to be used world-wide specifically for maintaining a clean swimming pool environment and many uses as a cleaning agent.